Ap 1988 Euro

1988 MC National AP European History Exam 100 questions in 75 minutes. 1. Salvation by faith alone, the ministry of all believers, and the authority of the Bible are principles basic to (A) the Christian humanism of Erasmus (B) the Church of England (C) Catholicism after the Council of Trent (D) Lutheranism in the early sixteenth century (E) the Society of Jesus (Jesuit order) 2. The Edict of Nantes in 1598 did which of the following? (A) Ensured Anglo-French cooperation throughout the seventeenth century. (B) Created a French church separated from papal authority. (C) Ended the War of the Spanish Succession. D) Proclaimed the toleration of Calvinism. (E) Precipitated the French Wars of Religion. [pic] 3. The sketch above, drawn by Galileo in 1610, was used to argue that the Moon (A) has no phases (B) has an irregular surface (C) is one of the planets (D) does not revolve around the Earth (E) is illuminated by Mars 4. â€Å"You venerate the saints and delight in touching their relic s, but you despise the best one they left behind, the example of a holy life †¦. If the worship of Christ in the person of His saints pleases you so much, see to it that you imitate Christ in the saints†The quotation above expresses the views of which of the following? (A) Henry VIII of England (B) Catherine de Medici (C) Erasmus of Rotterdam (D) Leonardo da Vinci (E) Niccolo Machiavelli 5. John Locke based his Two Treatises on Government primarily on which of the following views of human nature? (A) People are basically rational and learn from practical experience. (B) People are weak and sinful and need the guidance of organized religion. (C) People are fallible and need guidance from the cumulative wisdom of tradition. (D) People are inherently quarrelsome and should never be encouraged to revolt against state authority. E) People are born with all knowledge, and learning is the process of remembering that innate knowledge [pic] 6. The map above of eighteenth-century R ussia suggests which of the following about Russian territory between 1689 and 1796? (A) The Ottoman Empire annexed the Crimea (B) Peter the Great added more territory to Russia than did Catherine the Great (C) Most Russian expansion took place in the east (D) Russia ceded territory to Poland in the late eighteenth century (E) Russia acquired navigable seaports in both the north and the south 7.Which of the following best describes the political and economic environment of much of fifteenth century Italy? (A) A few large states dominated by a wealthy landed nobility (B) A strong unified Italian monarchy that patronized the arts (C) Many independent city-states with prosperous merchant oligarchies (D) Control of most of Italy by the pope, who encouraged mercantile development (E) Support of the arts in Italy by the kings of France and the Holy Roman emperors, who were competing for influence 8. The response of the Roman Catholic church to the Protestant Reformation included all of th e following EXCEPT A) the abolition of the Index of Prohibited Books (B) the establishment of the Society of Jesus (Jesuit order) (C) the convening of the Council of Trent (D) the founding of women’s orders active in education and care of the sick (E) an increase in the number of parish grammar schools [pic] 9. The Pieter Brueghal painting (circa 1569) shown above depicts the massacre of villagers in A) the Netherlands by Spanish troops B) Russia by Ottoman troops C) Spain by English troops D) France by Swedish troops E) Hungary by Austrian 10. The first political use of the terms â€Å"right† and â€Å"left† was to describe the A) division of France into predominantly Protestant and predominantly Roman Catholic areas (B) seating arrangements in the French National Assembly chamber during the French Revolution (C) party alliances in the English House of Commons during the debates prior to the American Revolution (D) two wings of the Versailles palace that housed the Roman Catholic and the Huguenot nobility (B) factions in the English Parliament that supported James II or William of Orange 11. Which of the following statements best describes the writers of the Romantic school? (A)They stressed emotion rather than reason. B)They continued the traditions of the Enlightenment. (C)They were advocates of increased political rights for women. (D)They modeled their work on the classics of Greece and Rome. (E)They based their writing on scientific and mathematical models. 12. During the Crimean War (1854-1856), most deaths among the military occurred as a result of (A) trench warfare and poisonous gas (B) guerrilla warfare (C) naval engagements (D) disease and inadequate medical care (E) heavy artillery bombardment 13. In fifteenth-century Europe. Muslim culture exerted the greatest influence on which of the following societies? A) English (B) French (C) German (D) Italian (E) Spanish 14. In 1500 the two most powerful autocracies in Eastern Europe were (A) Muscovy and the Ottoman Empire (B) the Ottoman and the Byzantine empires (C) the Byzantine Empire and Poland-Lithuania (D) Poland-Lithuania and Hungary (E) Hungary and Kievan Russia 15. The principal reason why Louis XIV (1643-1715) built his palace at Versailles was to (A) tighten his control over the nobility (B) strengthen ties with the Huguenots (C) move the king’s residence nearer to the center of the country (D) provide thousands of jobs E) absorb the excess revenue produced by mercantilist tax policies 16. In the second half of the seventeenth century, which of the following countries dominated European culture, politics, and diplomacy? (A) England (B) The Netherlands (C) Russia (D) France (E) Prussia 17. Which of the following best characterizes the Western European economy, as a whole, in the sixteenth century? (A) Widespread unemployment (B) Declining trade and commerce (C) Technological breakthroughs in production (D) Unrestricted trade among nations (E) S piraling inflation 18.In the first half of the seventeenth century, the Austrian Hapsburgs subdued revolt and centralized control in their territories by doing which of the following? (A) Emancipating the peasantry and encouraging agricultural development (B) Allying with the urban middle classes and encouraging commercial development (C) Establishing a national church headed by the Hapsburg emperor and redistributing former church properties (D) Creating a customs union to promote trade and acquiring new territories to supply merchants with raw materials (E) Waging warfare against rebel groups and supporting the Catholic Reformation 9. Which of the following was a major result of the Thirty’ Years’ War (1618-1648)? (A) The long-term strengthening of the Holy Roman Emperor’s authority (B) The banning of Calvinism in the German states (C) The establishment of strong Russian influence in the northern German states (D) The loss of as much as one-third of the German -speaking population through war, plague, and starvation (E) The encouragement of rapid economic development in many German-speaking cities 20. After the defeat of King Charles I in the English Civil War and his execution in 1649, England was governed for a decade by A) a democratic republic with universal suffrage (B) a commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell and his son (C) a constitutional monarchy under King James II (D) the king of Scotland (E) a parliamentary council dominated by egalitarians 21. Which of the following most clearly distinguishes the northern Renaissance from the Italian Renaissance? (A) Interest in science and technology (B) Greater concern with religious piety (C) Cultivation of a Latin style (D) Use of national languages in literature (E) Admiration for Scholastic thought 22. Adam Smith maintained that A) workers real wages decrease in the long run (B) population always tends to outstrip food supplies (C) monopolies benefit the state (D) competition is socially beneficial (E) social revolution is inevitable 23. Which of the following early nineteenth-century political figures was most closely identified with the concept of â€Å"the concert of Europe†? (A) Castlereagh (B) Napoleon I (C) Talleyrand (D) Alexander I (E) Metternich 24. A factor accelerating the British government’s repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was the (A) South Sea Bubble scandal (B) American Revolution C) Irish potato famine (D) development of relatively inexpensive ocean transport (E) worldwide mechanization of grain farming 25. Which of the following spared Europe a general multinational war during the second half of the nineteenth century? (A) The functioning of an effective balance of power (B) Europe’s preoccupation with industrial development (C) The strength of the German navy (D) Fear of Ottoman expansion into the rest of Europe (E) A policy of free and unrestricted trade 26. The eighteenth-century philosophes believed that society could best a chieve progress through A) prayer and contemplation (B) intuition (C) hard work and self-denial (D) scientific empiricism (E) analysis of Greek and Latin texts 27. The model of the universe which resulted from the scientific work of Galileo and Newton embraced (A) Aristotelian philosophy (B) a belief in an ascending â€Å"chain of being† (C) a conception of a spiritually animate universe (D) the belief in the fixed, central position of the Earth (E) the science of mechanics 28. The sequence of events that led to the French Revolution of 1789 is best summarized by which of the following? A) Lafayette’s call for democracy, royal suppression of the National Assembly, Robespierre’s leading a peasant revolution (B) Peasant uprisings, royal abdication, election of the National Assembly (C) Franco-Austrian war, urban riots, convening of the Assembly of Notables (D) Widespread famine, repression of riots, guerrilla war (E) Royal financial crisis, convening of the Estate s General, storming of the Bastille 29. â€Å"In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonism, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. These words express the ideas of (A) Alexis de Tocqueville (B) John Locke (C) Jean-Jacques Rousseau (D) Edmund Burke (E) Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels 30. Which of the following best describes an important trend in typical family size in Western Europe after 1870? (A) It increased in urban areas due to improvements in public health and housing for workers. (B) It decreased in working-class families due to legislation limiting child labor. (C) It decreased sharply because of chronic food shortages (D) It decreased initially in the middle classes because of the increased costs of rearing children. E) It remained unchanged because of massive emigration overseas 31. English economic expansion was severely threatened in the eighteenth century by a rapidly diminishing supply of (A) peat (B) wood (C) coal (D) oil (E) water power [pic] Left side of graph should read â€Å"Population (in millions)†, the first number is 1700 not 700 32. All of the following statements about Europe’s population in the eighteenth century can be inferred from the graph above EXCEPT: (A) For most of the century, France had the largest population of any European power. (B) The population of Eastern Europe outstripped that of Western Europe in size. C) Russia experienced the largest increase in rate of population growth. (D) The population of the British Isles grew throughout the century. (E) Rates of population growth increased after 1750. 33. â€Å"The salon was a weekly gathering held in the home of one of the dominant ladies of the society, at which dinner was usually served, cards usually played, but conversation led by the hostess predominated. A few salons were known as having the ideal mixture of leading intellectuals, open-minded nobles, and clever, elegant women. † The passage above describes an important aspect of social life in which of the following? A) Geneva during the Reformation (B) Florence during the Renaissance (C) London during the Glorious Revolution (D) Paris during the Enlightenment (E) Berlin during the Kulturkampf 34. Enlightened monarchs of the eighteenth century supported all of the following EXCEPT (A) religious tolerance (B) increased economic productivity (C) pacifist foreign policy (D) administrative reform (E) secular and technical education 35. Which of the following characterized European warfare between the Peace of Utrecht (1713) and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789)? (A) Standing armies pursuing limited strategic goals B) Citizen armies fighting for their native lands (C) Feudal armies fighting for their lords (D) Mass armies pursuing global strategies (E) Highly mobile armies unhampered by traditional defenses 36. Under the Napoleonic system, peasants in territ ories conquered by French armies were generally given (A) the right to vote for representatives to serve in newly created parliaments (B) control over the appointment of village priests (C) freedom from manorial obligations (D) free lessons in the French language (E) sets of laws designed specifically to fit local conditions 37. The greatest happiness for the greatest number† was the explicit goal of which of the following movements? (A) Romanticism (B) Utilitarianism (C) Pietism (D) Anarchism (E) Jansenism 38. â€Å"In the presence of my guests I reduced the telegram by deleting words, without adding or altering a single word . . . which made the announcement appear decisive. [My guest] said: ‘Now it has quite a different ring. In its original form it sounded like a parley. Now it is like a flourish of trumpets in answer to a challenger. ’ I went on to explain: ‘ . . . it will have the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull’†The individual re counting the story above was (A) Napoleon III (B) Cavour (C) Disraeli (D) Bismarck (E) Alexander II 39. The disease most common in industrialized areas of nineteenth-century Europe was (A) bubonic plague (B) tuberculosis (C) smallpox (D) malaria (E) leprosy 40. In 1917 the Bolsheviks sought to rally support from the Russian people with which of the following slogans? (A) â€Å"Peace, land, bread† (B) â€Å"Socialism in one country† (C) â€Å"Blood and iron† (D) â€Å"Family, work, fatherland† (E) â€Å"Liberty, equality, fraternity† 41. French leaders decided to occupy Germany’s Ruhr Valley in January 1923 in order to A) counterbalance Soviet influence in Germany (B) incorporate German territory permanently into France (C) halt the rise of the Nazi party among workers in the region (D) use the region’s industrial production to accelerate France’s rearmament (E) seize goods as payment for Germany’s reparations debt 42. By 1948 Soviet-dependent regimes existed in all of the following countries EXCEPT (A) Bulgaria (B) Hungary (C) Poland (D) Rumania (E) Yugoslavia 43. The French monarchy in the seventeenth century sought to expand France’s borders to its â€Å"natural frontiers† by gaining control of (A) Schleswig-Holstein B) Milan (C) Alsace (D) Spain (E) Tuscany 44. Which of the following caused the deepest and most persistent internal opposition to the French Revolution? (A) The Great Fear (B) The storming of the Bastille (C) The publication of Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (D) The advent of the Thermidorean reaction (E) The enactment of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy 45. Architecture produced in the Napoleonic Empire was influenced most by (A) ancient Egyptian pyramids (B) classical models (C) Romanesque churches (D) Islamic structures (E) Gothic churches [pic] 46.The graph above depicts the lengths, from longest to shortest, of the railway systems of (A ) the United Kingdom, the Italian states, France (B) the United Kingdom, the German states, France (C) The German states, the United Kingdom, the Italian states (D) France, the German states, the Italian states (E) France, the United Kingdom, the German states 47. Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill both wrote (A) critiques of the French Revolution (B) tracts on liberty and the rights of women (C) Utopian novels (D) polemics against alcohol consumption (E) satires of George III of England 48.All of the following cities experienced major uprisings in 1848 EXCEPT A) Paris B) Berlin C) London D) Rome E) Vienna [pic] 49. The image shown above is an example of a new technique for examining the human body which was discovered by (A) Faraday (B) Pasteur (C) Lister (D) Roentgen (E) Planck Questions 50-51 are based on the passage below. Where liberal parties, now liberal only in name, remained in power, they embraced protectionism and imperialism, undertook social regulation, and retain ed from the old liberal creed only Opposition to the extension of the franchise and to the church. 50.In what era did the developments described in the passage most probably take place? (A) 1715-1788 (B) 1789-1800 (C) 1815-1830 (D) 1880-1905 (E) 1945-1970 51. Which of the following factors best explains the transformation and decline of liberalism described in the passage? (A) The continued deference of peasants to aristocratic influence (B) The rise of industrial society and of mass political movements (C) The general decline in literacy rates (D) The inability of laissez-faire economics to uproot traditional communal agriculture and guilds (E) A strong popular reaction against liberal anti-clericalism 2. Which of the following ideas did Darwin draw on in developing his theories of evolution? (A) The Romantics’ ideas about the importance of heroic individuals (B) The scientific view that species are eternal and unchanging (C) The Biblical account of creation in Genesis (D) N ineteenth-century theories of manifest destiny (E) The population theories of Thomas Malthus [pic] 53. The nineteenth-century English cartoon above depicts (A) the weakening of Great Britain caused by emigration (B) Thomas Mann’s Death in Venice (C) the pollution resulting from industrialization D) British naval losses (E) criminals lurking around British waterways 54. The immediate cause of the 1905 Russian Revolution was social strain resulting from (A) the agitation of the Russian Social Democratic party (B) the mass emigration of skilled workers to the New World (C) attempts by the government to reform the Russian Orthodox church (D) the demands of ethnic groups for political autonomy (E) Russian losses in the Russo-Japanese War [pic] 55. According to the graph above, which class in sixteenth-century England benefited most from the trends shown? (A) Landowners B) Landless laborers (C) Household servants (D) Merchants (E) Small-scale artisans 56. Which of the following was a primary result of the Glorious Revolution of 1688? (A) The establishment of universal male suffrage (B) The restoration of Roman Catholicism to both England and Scotland (C) The limitation of monarchical power (D) The execution of Charles I (E) The triumph of Puritanism 57. Important prerequisites for Great Britain’s industrialization in the mid-eighteenth century included which of the following? (A) Innovations in agricultural techniques and increases in food production B) Dramatic improvements in workers’ housing in the cities (C) A rapid increase in the amount of gold imported from New World colonies (D) Rapid growth of a national system of rail transport (E) Strong monarchical leadership and a centralized government bureaucracy [pic] 58. The shaded areas on the map above represent which of the following? (A) Dynastic lands of the Hapsburgs in the sixteenth century (B) Participants in the Thirty Years’ War in the seventeenth century (C) Protestant regions in the eighteenth century (D) Members of the Holy Alliance in the nineteenth century E) Members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in the twentieth century 59. Which of the following European countries experienced the greatest degree of political instability in the nineteenth century? (A) Austria (B) France (C) The Netherlands (D) Prussia (E) Russia 60. When Sigmund Freud remarked that â€Å"in mental life nothing which has once been formed can perish,† he meant that (A) human beings are rational creatures (B) human beings can remember and recall all experiences at will (C) all mental acts are conscious mental acts D) the unconscious preserves unpleasant as well as pleasant thoughts (E) the unconscious obliterates excess thoughts [pic] 61. The chronologically arranged maps above illustrate the (A) concluding phases of the Franco-Prussian War (B) Schlieffen Plan (C) concluding phases of the First World War (D) settlement of the Treaty of Versailles. 1919 (E) invasion of France in 1940 62. Which of the following ideas is common to the works of both Karl Marx and the classical economists? (A) The overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the revolutionary proletariat is inevitable. B) Class struggle is the mechanism of historical progress. (C) The free exchange of wages for labor ensures social harmony. (D) The value of a product is largely determined by the value of the labor used to produce it. (E) The triumph of the proletariat will bring about a classless society. 63. During the last third of the nineteenth century, new industries, such as those producing electric power and chemicals, advanced most rapidly in which of the following European countries? (A) France (B) Italy (C) Germany (D) Belgium (E) Spain 64. What the breechloader, the machine gun, the steamboat, the steamship, quinine, and other innovations did was to lower the cost in both financial and human terms of penetrating, conquering, and exploiting new territories. So cost-effective did they ma ke imperialism that not only national governments but even individuals like Henry Stanley’ and Cecil Rhodes could precipitate events and stake out claims to vast territories which later became parts of empires. † The historian quoted above would most likely use which of the following statements to explain imperialism in Africa after 1870? A) Europe’s major corporations used ruthless force in their search for overseas trade and profits. (B) The power of European technology provided the mechanism that made imperialism cheap and easy. (C) European politicians were willing and eager to risk war for the sake of national prestige. (D) Individuals like Stanley and Rhodes were more important than economic forces in the conquest of Africa by Europeans. (E) The European officer class was eager to use Africa as a testing ground for new weapons. 65. All of the following were invented in Western Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries EXCEPT A) firearms (B) movabl e printing type (C) the compound microscope (D) the compass (E) the flying shuttle 66. â€Å"It was an important confederation of commercial towns in northern Germany with its own laws, diplomats, and flags. Its membership of merchants earned large profits shipping fish, timber, and other resources to areas to the west and to the south. Prosperity declined, however, when trade routes shifted from the Baltic to the Atlantic after 1500. † The description above refers to the (A) Confederation of the Rhine (B) Hanseatic League C) Merchants of the Staple (D) Holy Roman Empire (E) Schmalkaldic League 67. In the sixteenth century, all of the following had religious civil wars or political insurrections EXCEPT (A) Muscovite Russia (B) England (C) the Low Countries (D) France (E) the German states 68. The teachings of which of the following had the greatest impact on the Reformation in Scotland? (A) Ignatius of Loyola (B) John Calvin (C) Martin Luther (D) Desiderius Erasmus (E) Ulrich Zwingli 69. Mercantilism was principally characterized by (A) government efforts to build a strong. elf-sufficient economy (B) the efforts of the merchant class to influence policy by subsidizing the government (C) efforts by bankers and exporters to establish free trade (D) the theory that gold and silver were not real wealth (E) the view that labor ought to be able to seek its own market 70. In the late seventeenth century, which of the following countries led continental Europe in shipbuilding, navigation, and commerce and banking? (A) France (B) Russia (C) The Netherlands (D) Denmark (E) Spain 71. In eighteenth-century Europe, the most important imperial rivalries existed among which three of the following? A) Russia, France, and Great Britain (B) The German states, the Italian states, and Great Britain (C) The German states, the Italian states, and France (D) The German states, the Italian states, and Spain (E) Spain, France, and Great Britain 72. All of the following occurred as a result of the settlements reached at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) EXCEPT: (A) A balance of power was reestablished. (B) Belgium was united with the Netherlands under the House of Orange. (C) The neutrality of Switzerland was recognized. (D) Italy was unified under Sardinian leadership. E) A personal union between Sweden and Norway was created. 73. In the mid-nineteenth century, industrial growth in Western Europe was significantly stimulated by the (A) abolition of national customs barriers (B) introduction of assembly-line production (C) investment of United States Capital (D) expansion of transportation systems (E) expansion of labor unions 74. Which of the following factors most stimulated the entrance of large numbers of women into the labor force in many European countries during the First World War? (A) The decline in the average size of families (B) The increase in divorce rates C) Woman suffrage (D) The spread of Wilsonian principles (E) The shortage in the labor supply 75. A social historian would be most likely to research which of the following topics? (A) French diplomacy, 1742-1763 (B) Frederick William I and the General Directory of War, Finance, and Domains (C) The philosophical assumptions of Montesquieu’s Persian Letters (D) Napoleon’s Freudian relationship with Madame de Stael (E) Family life in a French village 76. In late nineteenth-century Great Britain, women were in the majority in which of the following categories of employment? (A) Transportation B) Mining (C) Factory work (D) Domestic service (E) Construction work 77. Which of the following scientific theories of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was used to support notions of racial superiority? (A)James’s theory of pragmatism (B)Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (C)Darwin’s theory of natural selection (D)Planck’s quantum theory (E)Pavlov’s theory of conditioned response [pic] 78. The painting above, Musical Forms (1931 ) by Georges Braque, is an example of which of the following schools of painting? (A) Romantic (B)Impressionist (C) Cubist (D) Expressionist (E) Realist 79.Albert Einstein is well known for theorizing that (A) atoms are stable, basic building blocks of nature (B) time and space are unconnected concepts (C) light contains energy only when it is visible (D) mass and energy are interconvertible (E) the speed of an aircraft cannot exceed the speed of sound 80. Most historians would agree with which of the following descriptions of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919? (A) A treaty that spelled out the Soviet Union’s reparation obligations (B) A triumph of farsighted political and economic planning (C) A treaty that dismantled the British Empire D) A destructive peace dictated by the United States (E) A treaty that the defeated thought too harsh and the victors thought too lenient 81. The political and social values of the Vichy government in France during the Second World War are best described as (A) democratic, socialistic, peaceful (B) radically fascistic, antichurch, antielitist (C) conservative-authoritarian, corporatist, Catholic (D) monarchist, nationalistic, antimilitary (E) republican, liberal, expansionist [pic] 82. The map above represents the British Empire in (A) 1776 (B) 1850 (C) 1919 (D) 1950 (E) 1961 83. Man, being the servant and interpreter of Nature, can do and understand so much . . . as he has observed.. . . Beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything. † The passage above was written by (A) Francis Bacon (B) Martin Luther (C) Rene Descartes (D) Georg Hegel (E) Friedrich Nietzsche 84. Which of the following European states was the last to eliminate legal discrimination against Jews? (A) Austria-Hungary (B) France (C) Great Britain (D) Italy (E) Russia 85. All of the following were among President Wilson’s Fourteen Points EXCEPT (A) an independent Poland (B) absolute freedom of navigation C) the limitation of armament s (D) the autonomous development of the peoples of Austria-Hungary (E) the autonomous development of the peoples of the Russian Empire 86. The major objective of the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) was to (A) end the use of war for solving international controversies (B) end the Russo-Polish border conflict (C) end tensions between France and Great Britain over the export of French farm surpluses to Great Britain (D) end the French occupation of the Ruhr (E) replace the Dawes and Young plans [pic] 87. The illustration above from a 1940 German magazine suggests that women should A) bear as many children as possible (B) not be discouraged by shortages of food and consumer goods (C) not work outside the house (D) support the war effort by doing their sons’ and husbands’ jobs (E) enlist in the army to help the war effort 88. The primary instrument of economic integration in Western Europe since the Second World War has been the (A) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (B) European Economic Community (EEC) (C) World Bank (D) United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (E) European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 9. The most notable social effect of the 1923 inflation in Germany was the (A) depletion of the savings and income of the middle class (B) encouragement of population shifts from cities to the countryside (C) strengthening of the position of women in the work force (D) acceleration of a trend toward the establishment of cooperative pension plans (E) reduction of social tensions 90. All of the following are policies to which totalitarian states have traditionally adhered EXCEPT (A) encouragement of multiparty political systems (B) promotion of social welfare measures C) expansion of the military (D) economic planning (E) holding of periodic elections 91. Which of the following was a major factor in German military victories in1939-1940? (A) Overwhelming German technological and numerical superiority to the French an d the English (B) French insistence on continuing to fight, regardless of the cost (C) Britain’s campaign in Norway, which diverted British troops from Western Europe (D) The German army’s effective use of armor and air power in the Blitzkrieg (E) The German defeat of the Russian army at Tannenberg in August 1939 92.Which of the following statements about twentieth-century existentialists like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre is true? (A) They questioned the efficacy of reason and science in understanding the human situation. (B) They counseled an integration of Christian principles into everyday life. (C) They promoted the development of nuclear technology. (D) They advocated a return to the ideals of the Enlightenment. (E) They advocated nationalism and the strengthening of the individual nation-states. 93. In the 1960’s a factor that distinguished Soviet social structure from the societies of advanced industrial nations in Western Europe was theSoviet Unionà ¢â‚¬â„¢s (A) lack of linguistic and ethnic divisions (B) high percentage of workers engaged in agriculture (C) rising number of workers in service-sector jobs (D) integration of women into the political elite (E) system of compulsory education 94. Which of the following was the major reason for the establishment of the Dual Monarchy in 1867? (A) To satisfy the demands of the Magyars (B) To resist Turkish encroachment into Europe (C) To resist demands made by Napoleon III (D) To balance the power of the North German Confederation (E) To curb the growing strength of a united Italy 5. The immediate aim of the Truman Doctrine of 1947 was to (A) promote the economic recovery of Europe (B) block the spread of communism in France and Italy (C) prevent the overthrow of the Greek and Turkish governments (D) bring about Soviet withdrawal from Czechoslovakia (E) forestall Soviet plans with regard to West Germany 96. Which of the following areas was conceded to Hitler at the Munich Conference o f 1938? (A) The Polish Corridor (B) The Rhineland (C) The Saar (D) Silesia (E) Sudetenland 97. The Western Allies and the Soviet Union agreed to all of the following easures to be implemented after the Second World War EXCEPT (A) the division of Berlin into four occupation zones (B) an international trial at Nuremberg of major Nazi leaders (C) a denazification program (D) the placing of Germany under the control of the United Nations (E) the disarmament of the German military 98. Nikita Khrushchev’s program of de-Stalinization involved all of the following EXCEPT (A) curbing the power of the political police (B) attacking Stalin’s cult of personality (C) disbanding agricultural collectives (D) reestablishing the primacy of the Communist party E) loosening controls over culture and society 99. Which of the following characterized Mussolini’s ideal of the fascist corporate state? I. Organization of the population into syndicates of employers, employees, and govern ment arbitrators II. Establishment of semiautonomous regional governments III. Abolition of strikes, lockouts, and the older trade unions (A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II only (D) I and III only (E) I, II, and III 100. Which of the following was a central part of National Socialist ideology? (A) Anticommunism (B) Conservatism (C) Protestantism (D) Utilitarianism (B) Syndicalism

Ethical Leadership – Analysis

Reader also used the â€Å"waiter rule† to explain that a lot can be said about a person's character by the way they treat the waiter, which is much like the golden rule, treat others as you wish to be treated. This piece of advice relates to the business world, because professionals should respect one another, tell the truth, and conduct themselves in an ethical manner. Furthermore, Reader discussed the leadership and ethical leadership. He described leadership as someone who inspires people to achieve a goal.He elaborated on this concept by stating that ethical leadership is when a person leads y Influencing their followers and use Input from the followers to shape goals and purposes. Moreover, an ethical leader should be consistent In both words and actions, lead by example, and can be referred to as a role model. These ethical leaders are extremely Important to employees. Reader shared some astounding statistics as to why employees need role models: 56% of employees person ally observed misconduct and out of those who observed it, 42% did not report it.This shows that the tone at the top is extremely important in firms. If the management is more likely to behave unethically, then this attitude trickles down and negatively effects the ethical values of everyone in the company. In addition, he discussed how peer commitment is important. For example, most times, an employee will look to see what colleagues are doing in order to make a decision. This information relates to me professionally because I will be starting my career as an auditor soon and the attitudes and ethical culture of the company and my colleagues will definitely affect how I perform my Job.Reader also discussed how a leader can promote and ethical culture. These ten pieces of advice would definitely help me in a professional setting because at one mint I will be leading a group of people on an audit engagement. The first piece of advice is to walk the walk, which means that the leader n eeds to lead by example. Next, he states that the leader should keep people in the loop. This means that the leader needs to involve the employees and inform them on various changes and adjustments happening in the organization.Reader suggests that the leader should also encourage thoughtful dissent and show the employees that he/she truly cares. Furthermore, Reader states that in order to promote and ethical culture, the leader would not sweep problems under the rug, but should deal with each problem In an ethical manner. In Dalton, the leader should celebrate the successes In the organization and be fair to all employees. Also, the leader should make ethics a priority.Often times In the professional world, leaders behave ethically but do not truly make ethics a priority. Although sometimes difficult, leaders need to make tough the leader should â€Å"get the right people eon the bus and keep them,† which means that the leader should find employees that share the same ethica l values and do whatever is possible to keep them on board. Overall, I think Reader provided some great examples and advice on ethics and ethical leadership.All of the examples and advice he discussed relate to a professional environment and especially auditing. Auditors do not have the best reputation because of unethical behaviors by professionals, like Arthur Andersen, in the past. Often times the auditing profession can really challenge and test an individual's ethical and moral compass. However, Reader's speech reminded me what I need do to make sure I maintain ethical relationships and become an ethical leader in my audit career.

Journal summary Essay

Organizational Assessment : Effectiveness vs. Efficiency This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 1 about the Organization Effectiveness. i. What was the aim of the study? An organization had its own goals and mission. There were many ways that could be implement in order to make sure that the organization will achieves whether it short or long term goal. The term effectiveness and efficiency was always being the indicator of the organization performance. This study will determine the differentiation, features, proximities or values of the effectiveness and efficiency. There were some people believe that there is no difference between effectiveness and efficiency, but according to Mouzas (2006), each of these terms have their own distinct meanings. ii. Model that being used in this study. As stated in the chapter 1, under â€Å"How Does an Organization Create Value? † there is value creation. Value creation takes places at three stages which are input, conversion and output. To differentiate the meaning of effectiveness and efficiency, the authors of this study has adapted a model from Frey and Widmer (2009) regarding effectiveness and efficiency. Figure 1 Chain of effects Based on Figure 1, we can see that efficiency information provides different data compared to effectiveness. As we can see, under the effectiveness it concern about output, outcome and impact. It measures the on how the organization will achieve their goals or the way outputs interact with the economic and social environment. For the efficiency aspect we can see it concern about the input and output. According to (Low, 2000), the efficiency will measure on how successfully the inputs have been transformed into outputs. iii. What is the result of the study? This study was using the obstructive measure approach where the authors had collected finding from other resources. In order to come out with conclusion, they had gathered many findings related to the effectiveness and efficiency. They highlighted few points such as the meaning, differences, characteristics, and how it will be dependence toward each other. According to the study by Pinprayong and Seingthai (2012), they suggest that return on assets (ROA) is suitable measure of overall company performance, since it reveals how profitable organizations assets are in making revenues. Total assets turnover will measure the ability of a company to use it assets to efficiency generate sales; therefore it can be treated as effectiveness. As conclusion, they had come out with formula of: Organizational performance = effectiveness x efficiency; iv. Limitations In some cases effectiveness concept is being used to reflect overall performance of the organization, since it is a broader concept compared to the efficiency. It gets challenging to explore the efficiency factor if it is included under effectiveness assessment v. Conclusion The characteristics of effectiveness and efficiency Figure 1. 1 shows that the organizations cannot survive without effectiveness policy. Even though the organization is an inefficient but effective, organization still have a chances to survive. Usually, organization that in high effectiveness and high efficiency are well known as high performance entities. Effectiveness is a much broader perspectives, which touch about quality, value, satisfactions, output and environments. Efficiency is on how well the input was transformed into output. Effectiveness and efficiency, they influence each other. In order to achieve all the organizations goals and had an excellence in competitive performance, organizations should find way on increasing the efficiency and effectives evenly. 2. Impact of Employee Adaptability to Change Towards Organizational Competitive Advantage This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 4 about the Basic Challenges of Organizational Design i. What was the aim of the study? A change in the most understandable way is the moving process from one point to another. It’s not a must to do things for an organization, but in order to make sure the organization in can compete and achieve the better performance, changes should be made. Although changing is the good things to do, but it have own limitations and it cannot easily made, so that why this study had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know how the competitive advantages have the significant effect on training and development, empowerment and maintaining in the organization. It is stated in this study, that their aim is to identify and to discuss the reasons why employees didn’t easily adapt the changes than those eager to adapt the change in any case. ii. Model that being used in this study. There were three variables that being used for this study which are training and development, empowerment and culture. These variables will tested in order to know the relationship of the variables towards the employee adaptability to change which is a moderator and competitive advantage being a dependent variable. iii. What is the result of the study? Before come out with a conclusion, data must be collected and analyze. For this study they had distributed 80 questionnaires towards employees within service sector organizations and others. On the basis of the data conducted from the person engage in the executive, supervisors and staff position. Table 2. 1 Descriptive Analysis The findings were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. Based on the result gathered by questionnaires, the authors will use the correlation of the statistical interference in order to identify the hypothesis had being developed this study and relationship between the discussed variables. Above we can conclude that training & development is good for the employee to adapt the change and organizations leads it competitive advantage. For the empowerment, they score greater mean that training & development which is good to the employee. Lastly, from the table its show that good culture has influence on the organizational competitive advantage. iv. Conclusion In order to make an organization competence, they should a changing process toward the better environments. But, changes are not easily made. They will be some people that against on the changing process. That is why, the adaptability is important. As being stated in this study, employee adaptability is more dependent on the parallel activities that preceded along with the others activities in the organization and these activities helps the employee to perform more enthusiastically and impatient to demeanor any challenge or adapt any change whatever it will be. 3. Organizational Culture and Its Themes This journal is being chosen related to the Organizational Theory, Design and Change for chapter 7 about Creating and Managing Organizational Culture. i. What was the aim of the study? Organizational culture is a about sharing value and norms that will help on controlling organizational members interactions within each other and with people outside the organization. As written in this journal, culture within an organization acts as a critical role in the organizations everyday operations. In order to validate this statement, a study about an organizational culture had being conducted. The purpose of this study is to know in deeper what is an organizational culture, models related, themes and the importance toward an organization. ii. Model that being used in this study. As being stated earlier, organization culture can be described as a set of theory consist of values, beliefs, and understanding that members share in common. It also helps in the ways of thinking that could help while making decision. From the perspective of Andrew Brown (1995, 1998), the organization culture: â€Å"Refers to the patters of beliefs, values and learned ways of coping with experience that have developed during the course of an organization’s history, and which tend to manifested in its material arrangements and in the behaviors of its members†. One of those models that being adapted in this study is the Onion Diagrams, by Hofstede. He was dividing culture into four layers which consist of symbols, heroes, ritual and values. Figure 3. 1 Onion Diagram Based on the Figure 3. 1 above, the core level in the culture level is value; values are intimately connected with moral and ethical codes which determine what people ought to be done. The second level is rituals, which is describing the collective activities that considered essential. The next level is heroes. According to Deal and Kennedy (1982), hero is a great motivator; heroes are also persons who possess characteristic which are highly prized. Symbols are the most overt element of culture and are the gestures, objects, words or acts that signify something different or wider from the others, and which have meaning for individual or group. iii. The importance of this study In order to have a rapid organization development, organization culture can be used as a tool to help the organization reach success. It also can be a management tool, which managers can use some values to control and direct employee behavior. In addition, the importance of the organization culture toward the development of an organization seconded with statement from Campbell and Stonehouse (1999) said: â€Å"Culture can also have influence on; employee motivation; employee morale and ‘good will’; productivity and efficiency; the quality of work; innovation and creativity and the attitude of employees in the workplace†. iv. Conclusion As stated in this study, they highlighted that in order to achieve a successful culture, managers shouldn’t ignore organizational culture and its themes, because culture can be used as a competitive advantage during organizational development, and a strong culture (one in which beliefs and values are widely shared and strongly held) can also offer many advantages, such as cooperation, control, communication or commitment. 4. Re conceptualizing Organizational Role Theory for Contemporary Organizational Contexts i. Aim and introduction of the study. The purpose of this study is to know deeper regarding the organizational role theory and to identify what are the issues related to the organizational theory that will limit it usage. In this study, they were several issue that being listed out regarding organizational theory. Based on Katz and Kahn (1966) state that the assignment of work-roles prescribes the behavior of employees are expected to comply, so that they are able to perform their speci? ed tasks and duties effectively. He also mentions that organizational role theory (ORT) is help to de? ne a â€Å"role-set† for the individual, employee and determine the speci? c role-behaviors the employee. Beside that according to According to Biddle (1986), George (1993), and Smithson and Stokoe (2005), the diminishing usefulness of classical ORT can be traced to three part. There are the limitations in its role-taking, role-consensus and role-con? ict assumptions. The theoretical issues discussed indicate about the development of ORT has failed to keep the change in the organizational context. Data Collections This research consists of two-stage qualitative data gathering process. The ? rst stage included the questionnaire-survey to a sample of employees and the second stage data collection process to collect the data required to answer the second research question. The uses of semi-structured interview allowed the researcher to strengthen the investigation. The respondent reported that charity, education, social are the important impact on their working life. iii. Result Summary To simplify the results for this study it can be divided into two summaries: Research Summary 1 Although the research findings supported the relevance of the â€Å"work-family/work-life balance† literature to ORT, there was evidence that at least four other categories of non-work roles needed to be considered for the effective management of human resources. In terms of work-roles, academics and practitioners must remain aware of the work-roles currently recognized by classical ORT. In terms of work-family roles, they need to recognize the specific impacts of the work-family interface, and become aware of the limitations of â€Å"family-friendly† practices that serve only to enable workers to spend more time at work Research Summary 2 There were two things that will be highlighted in these summaries. First, the recognition that employees (both actual and potential) are multi-faceted is incorporated into the model in three important ways. In the pre-employment phase, the model now requires the employer to attain a level of understanding of the potential employee’s family and non-family roles that they need to enact for their self-validation, self-recognition and overall wellbeing. In the initial employment phase, it requires that employers consider the interaction between the most important non-work-roles (as identified by the employee) and the work-roles to be bestowed on them. iv. Conclusion Finally it can conclude that, this research suggest the employees perceived had a signi? cant impact on their working-life. ORT needs to incorporate for an effective HR policy framework. It also recommends that further investigation into ORT’s role in the workplace and further exploration. 5. Organization Theory and Methodology This is a summary of the article â€Å"Organization Theory and Methodology† by Michael C. Jensen in Harvard Business School. In this research the researcher find the relation between positive and normative theories, the importance to the research effort of the choice of tautologies and definitions, the nature of evidence, and the role of mathematics. The author mentions that, the major reason for the early successes of operations research and its later failure can be traced to the nature of the theories. In addition, According to Alchian (1950), organization need not assume that agents are engaged in purposeful activity for the models to work. Besides that, Hayek (1979) emphasizes most of the complex phenomena that make up human culture were never consciously invented by any individual and much of human culture is still not well understood. Furthermore, there is evidence in Chandler’s (1962), work that the organizational innovations that led to the large, integrated, multi-divisional firms in the early 1900’s were accompanied by substantial innovations in accounting practices. Moreover, the behavior of the organization is the equilibrium behavior which made up of maximizing agents with diverse and conflicting. The Construction of a theory of organizations involves creating a theory that describes the equilibrium behavior of these complex contractual systems where the individual agent is the elementary unit of analysis. On the other hand, the choice of tautologies or definitions has a large impact on the success or failure of research efforts. As a conclusion, the researcher says that the competition in research is an important element for innovation and makes progress at product markets. He also mention that, ideal process described about the important aspects of the environment, monitoring and bonding technology that derive a theory that is consistent with those contracts.

Examining the Stages of Interpersonal Communication Assignment

Examining the Stages of Interpersonal Communication - Assignment Example Someone was playing a prank on him and had taken away his clothes as he was swimming. He did not have a locker there since he was not a member so he had left the clothes on the benches when he went to the pool. It can then be considered that the first meeting was a bit funny and also sad. This was the initiating stage and it was characterized by us meeting in the pool area and the changing rooms and exchanging pleasantries whenever we could. I had the idea that he wanted to be my friend since he always said hello whenever we met and seemed more comfortable putting his clothes and bag near where I kept mine. When he asked me for my number so that he could get in touch and we could be swimming together, I knew that he wanted us to be friends. In the experimenting stage of our relationship, we began calling each other and planning for swimming together. This stage was definitely experimenting since we were always trying to know more about each other. I particularly wanted to find out where Tim lived, his hobbies, whether he had brothers and sisters, which school he went to and so much more. Later I came to realize that he also wanted to know the same and this was a way that would help us to reduce uncertainty (Adler & Proctor, 2012, p. 256). At this particular stage, I tried my best to appear as a good person so that Tim would be comfortable being my friend and he even let me know that there had been some guys at the gym that had always bullied him and played pranks on him and that was what had happened the first time we had met. As this stage progressed, we had more time around each other especially when going swimming since I had come to realize that Tim liked swimming the same way that I did. Severally, we visited each others’ houses and in the process I met his parents and siblings and when he came to my place, he got the chance to meet my parents and my brothers too. In this stage, I tried to be as direct as possible and told Tim the things that

Malcolm Glazer's Acquisition Of Manchester United Case Study

Malcolm Glazer's Acquisition Of Manchester United - Case Study Example As we know that the finance department plays a vital role in every organization and ensures that the organization has enough resources and liquidity to meet its legal obligations as well as facilitate its shareholders. The primary goal of the finance manager is to ensure that his company has adequate supply of capital and sufficient statutory reserves. The ultimate goal of every organization is the same "to increase the surplus". But the question is; how the finance manager becomes the part of the success story and how they can maximize the value of their organization The financial manager or the chief financial officer (CFO) is responsible for financing the enterprise and acts as an intermediary between the financial system's institution and markets. While on the other hand, the business manager is responsible for a different kind of work like investing in plants and equipments, undertake research, hire staff and sell the firm's product. Major financial decisions made by the managers of a business are either investment decisions or financing decisions. In investment decisions, managers consider the amount invested in the assets of the business and the composition of that investment. Investment in assets are more beneficial because it produces cash flows for the entity that are needed to meet the operating expenses, pay interest to lenders and taxes to government. In addition to the amount and composition of investment, managers have to decide how to finance them; it pertains to the financing decision which involves generating funds internally or from sources external to the business. Dividend decisions also affect the financing decisions (Bossaerts, 2006). Successful companies have skilled people at all levels inside the company, including (1) leaders who develop and articulate sound strategic visions; (2) managers who make value-adding decisions, design efficient business processes, and train and motivate work forces and (3) a capable work force willing to implement the company's strategies and tactics. Before going

Strategic Management D3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Management D3 - Essay Example The New Recipe case study showed how the firm reacted to the effects of Martha Steward Wall Street scandal and restructured its operations afterwards to change the firm’s public image and operating procedures. The firm expanded its outbound logistics setup by adding other major retailers other than K-Mart to solidity its distribution network. The company’s operations were reorganized as far as its human management function. Martha Steward leadership role was reduced, she stepped down as CEO of the company and took a more passive role within the organization Along with a new management team the company implemented a corporate strategy that divided its business into four divisions: publishing, broadcasting, merchandising and internet. An internal audit an advisory activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations (Vt, 2008). Among the key areas included in the internal audit are risk management, control and corporate governance. At Martha Steward Living Omnimedia the company had to access the risk associated with the brand image of the company which required actions to achieve collateral damage. The company suffered heavy financial losses for a couple of years after Martha’s conviction. Between 2002 and 2006 the firm was not profitable, with 2005 being the worst year due to a $76 million corporate loss. The results had a detrimental effect in the value of the company’s stock value. Corporate governance structure of a company specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among the different participants such as the board, management and shareholders (Encycogov, 2008). The corporate governance of the company changed to separate the power and interest of the founder from the company’s objectives. Prior to Martha’s conviction the fact that she played such an instrumental role in the entire operations

Nonfiction Text and the Use of Graphic Organizers Essay

Nonfiction Text and the Use of Graphic Organizers - Essay Example One strategy for developing these skills in students is through the use of graphic organizers. Graphic organizers are communication devices used to show the structure or organization of concepts and the relationships between them (Ellis). They are visual tools that use visual symbols to denote ideas and concepts to convey meaning. They depict the relationships between facts, terms, and/or ideas. They are often referred to as a map because they help teachers and students map out ideas in a visual manner (Saskatoon). According to Ellis, the visual spatial arrangements which represent the information's structure reduce the cognitive demands on the learner. The learner need not process a lot of semantic information to understand the information. Graphic organizers are very powerful devices for students with language-based learning disabilities (Ellis). They are of course similarly useful, if not more so, for regular students who do not have learning disabilities. Being a visual tool, a graphic organizer allows the mind to see patterns and relationships in the information presented. One of the most common graphic organizers is the calendar. It is a descriptive matrix. At a glance it shows what month it is, the number of days in the month, what day of the week a certain date falls on, which dates fall on a particular day, and so on. The calendar helps the user gather, sift, sort and share information (Graphic.org1). Usefulness of Graphic Organizers As instructional tools, graphic organizers are very valuable because they are flexible and endless in application. They show the order and completeness of a student's thought process. They can immediately indicate strengths and weaknesses of understanding. They show different aspects of an issue or problem, whether it be the big picture or a part of it up close (Kipperman & McIntry). Graphic organizers are applicable across a wide range of curriculum subject areas such as reading, science, social studies, language arts, and mathematics (Saskatoon). However the effectiveness of graphic organizers lies in the ability of teachers teaching students how to use them efficiently. Especially in the area of non-fiction text, graphic organizers foster learning in reading, comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. The learner does not merely read a bunch of words but learns to understand the importance or lack of importance of these words, understanding the concept behind what is being read, det ermine a main idea and process relational information from there (Graphic.org2). Ellis identifies three compelling reasons for using graphic organizers. First, students will more likely understand and remember the subject content they are being taught. A graphic organizer highlights what is/are important, and separates these from those that are interesting but not essential. In other words, information tends to be more precise. Second, graphic organizers allow the teacher to expound on the content at more complex levels because the burden of semantic processing is greatly reduced. Showing instead of just telling students the information facilitates understanding. Third, students more likely become strategic learners with the use of graphic organizers, thereby improving reading and writing skills, communication skills, and analytical, critical, and creative

Dinah Washington Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Dinah Washington - Research Paper Example After starting to record with Apollo label, she was backed up by saxophonist Lucky Thompson in 1945. She later went solo but would occasionally record with other artists. 12. Dinah Washington made her living as a performer and through sales of her music. However, besides her music, she was also a shrewd business woman and she had apartments in Chicago, luxurious apartments in Manhattan and owned a hotel in Detroit. 13. Dinah Washington parents were Ollie Jones and Alice Williams. She was married seven times and her husbands included John Young (1942-1943), George Jenkins (1949), Walter Buchanan (1950), Eddie Chamblee (1957), Raphael Campos (1957), Horatio Malt (1959 – 1960), Jacky Hayes (1960), and Richard Lane (1963). From these marriages, she had two children including Robert Grayson and George Kenneth Jenkins. ‘What a Difference a Day Makes’- the song was composed in 1959 and was arguably one of her greatest songs. The song was rated the top ten in Billboards and she won a Grammy award for the best R&B record with the song. ‘Jazz sides’ was recorded in 1958 and is often referred as one of the most exciting performances by Dinah Washington. She did the song and featured other prominent artists including Quincy jones, Paul quinichette, Wynton Kelly, and Terry Gibbs. ‘Dinah jams’ was a song in an album that contains one of her best Jazz songs. The song was recorded as she performed live on stage. She performed together with Ben Webster, Clark Terry and Cannonball

Literacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Literacy - Essay Example Lake uses his son’s cultural literacy and the Indian traditional literacy standards to describe Wind’s state of grace, his power, and functionality within the Indian culture. He describes Wind’s literacy as a state-of-grace by identifying his excellence in learning what has culturally been expected of him. Lake applies traditional standards and succeeds in illustrating how the child’s literacy meets honorable standards by demonstrating his diversified knowledge. The description of the child’s scope of education that has been â€Å"colorful, complicated, sensitive, and diverse† identifies this state-of-grace because of the child’s tender age. The child has also learnt many things that different members of the society engage in. He has learnt from all social groups and this includes his father, mother, and people from both his generation and his parents’ generation. Wind’s literacy also identifies a state of grace because h e is able to apply the learnt concepts such as understanding indicators to natural phenomena (Lake n.p.). The writer also describes power in the child’s literacy by illustrating how the literacy captures the child’s attention to an extent that he can only focus on the knowledge when he identifies an associated phenomenon. When he identifies change in the atmosphere, Wind is carried away, and is captured by what he has learnt and his mind dreams of the things that his traditional literacy taught him that should be done at such times. This means that Wind’s literacy is not only powerful in its self, but is more powerful than the western literacy that has failed to capture Wind’s attention into focusing in class. Lake also uses developed conflict in the child to demonstrate the power in his literacy. When Wind learns that his literacy conflicts with the new form of education in school, the cultural conflict

Women and American Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Women and American Revolution - Essay Example The main distinction was on the basis of races; the blacks and the whites. Even though affected the educational and cultural development of the nation, the American Revolution resulted in the formation of the powerful nation in the world. In the midst of 17th Century the need of women education became prominent and activists began to write books and journals on women rights, and this showed the revolutionary ideology toward women Education. Supporters like Catherine Beecher, established certain institutions to provide women education, when they were confined to work at home. She emphasized on women education by teaching women how to learn their children at home, rather than involving only on household works. The introduction of Oberlin College in 1833 and Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 are considered to be milestones in history of American Women Education. The Convention provided opportunity for women to get educated at home and also criticized the issues of suffrage. For a better educated nation, as the children were first taught by their mothers, better educated women can only educate their children, so it arouse the need for women education. After all the country was in need of a lot number of teachers and male t eachers couldn't be found to fill vacancies. The introduction of religious institutions was another main leap in women education.

Character of Nicholas in Chaucers Millers Tale Essay Example for Free

Character of Nicholas in Chaucers Millers Tale Essay Nicholas, with his outrageous sense of humour and eager pursuit of love, functions as the charming, likeable hero in Millers Tale. He is introduced as hende Nicholas, and his conduct does not at all answer to the usual sense of the adjective which implies great courtesy, but its suggestion of approval is repeatedly invoked as the Miller refers to his hero by this formula. We learn at once that he is knowledgeable and of his interest in astrology. This is seen as a respectable branch of learning, but Nicholas is aware of its power to impress others, while he is able to supplement his income by weather-forecasting. He is also helped financially by friends. The imaginary flood of which Nicholas tells John shows us his cunning, his confident attitude, his inventiveness and especially his contempt for the stupid tradesman: Dont worry about that, said Nicholas, / His times been badly wasted, if a scholar / Cant get the better of a carpenter. (lines 191-193) In spite of this, however, the Miller presents the astrologer in a way that makes the audience like Nicholas. He does this by making John seem deserving of punishment for his unwise marriage and subsequent jealousy. Nicholass youth and attractiveness makes us less critical of his boldness, and the comic manner of the tales telling makes his conduct seem less worthy of censure than would be the case with real people. Nicholas seems a more appropriate partner for Alison than does John, and the Millers repetition of the formula hende Nicholas encourages us to be more sympathetic. However, it is important to note that Nicholas does not escape his daring plan without any consequences. His over-confidence and lack of prudence earn him a punishment appropriate to his offence, and in keeping with the farcical spirit of the tale he is scalded in the towte by his rival, who mistakes him for Alison. Thus, Nicholas may be the character that has the audience rooting for him by being likeable and providing good laughs, but his charming yet arrogant attitude does not prevent him from suffering the consequences of his actions. The Canterbury Tales [Oxford guides to Chaucer]. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.

Leonardo, Michelangelo and Titian Essay Example for Free

Leonardo, Michelangelo and Titian Essay His statement argues that the latest and unfinished works of the artist should be reassessed with more appreciation than the works completed during his mature period, as they enable the viewer to understand the trace of the under painting and the original intention of the artist, not necessarily because of the virtue of incompleteness and ultimo that they spellbound the viewer. Pliny the Elder’s statement seems to be valid explaining artists’ old-age style, especially for the ones who had a long career like Michelangelo and Titian. The old-age style is not necessarily limited to the aesthetic style, which the artists from the same period perhaps shared in common, but it also refers to the latest phase of the artistic career of the artists who were active for a long time. Therefore, each old-age style of them is obviously differentiated in terms of their perception, ideal, and background. However, Pliny’s statement is not thoroughly suitable, but sound feasible for reassessing their art historical values. He warns on the contradiction of giving the works the biased credits for only being latest and unfinished, which would be false impression on the contrary. Michelangelo and Titian, whose time frames partially overlap to each other, certainly built up the established fames based on the long artistic career incomparable to their contemporaries. The old-age style literally refers to the style of the artist in his old age, but we should not limit the meaning of this temporal phase as the word ‘old’ explicitly connotes. Apparently, the term gives a sense and expectation that those work will be somewhat less refined, polished, vital, perhaps aesthetically regress compared to the ‘mature’ style of the artist that established an honor to add the suffix ‘-schi’ to the end of their names. Although the works they created are static and permanent objects, their artistic styles that dominated the period are in flux. The old-age styles of the high Renaissance artists predict the forthcoming of the Maniera and Baroque generation, and demonstrate the senile sublime, freely emancipated from aesthetic vanity, emotionally touching, and revealing much enhanced psychological depth. The latest works of Michelangelo, the two frescoes at the Pollini chapel in Rome he worked for almost a decade, close the long painting career of him. Although these works were completed officially, they imply non-finito aspect enhanced by the medium, which began to be noticeable since the Last Judgment. The Conversion of Saul, executed first about two decades before his death, became the center of controversy immediately and got negative reception from the contemporaries. What Michelangelo depicted is far from the classical physical beauty and the artist engaged with his own perception to the episode. The vision of Christ is exclusively shown to the anti-Christian Saul, as he becomes temporarily blind and gains insight instead. The artist explicitly illustrated the very internal experience of Saul and placed it above the earthly space parallel to the troops who fear the unknown voice from the sky. A newly suggested diagonal along with light and darkness enhance the dramatic tension from the left top to the foreground center connected by the beam of the God. The compact figures shown in each zone are the continuation of Michelangelo’s terribilita. In the latter fresco, Crucifixion of Saint Peter begins to show the bold diagonal, which gives almost a proto Baroque aspect. Saint Peter with the upside down cross and the void surrounding him occupy the central picture plane. Although there is no strong suggestion of the light source other than sunset, the surrounding figures, especially their features, are in shade and less individualized. As they focus the center scene like mere spectators, the overall composition of the painting engages the viewer’s attention to be concentrated to the center as well. The heroic torso of Peter fights against the gravity by lifting himself up and delivers the pain caused by the four nails on each feet and hands. He throws a daring gaze to the outward, invites the viewers into the pictorial space. The shallow space, as if the figures would spill into our space, no more retains the high Renaissance balance and harmony, as well as the figures somber and gracelessness suggests the end of its era with the negation to the fixed beauty. The contrast of light and dark of Michelangelo is not as radical as the later phase of Leonardo foreshadowing the tenebroso of the next century but enough to inform that he as well acknowledge to the limit of the high Renaissance style and gradually shift to the new style. As these works are Michelangelo’s last effort in the art of painting finished about a decade before his death, they deserve Pliny the Elder’s statement as the example fits into the artist’s old-age style. Not necessarily the artist weakened physically, but crucial as the works suggest that the artist perhaps had reached the pinnacle of his mature style, being free from the obligation to maintain his signature style. Pieta, the last work of Titian, which was left unfinished due to the death of the artist in 1576, perhaps is more feasible for Pliny the Elder’s statement as the example which is unfinished, and delivers the ‘sorrow for the hand that perished at its work’ due to the physical deterioration of the artist. Titian’s mature style based on the Tuscan monumentality and Venetian colorito tradition enabled him to achieve international success from the early career. Titian’s figures, which were very palpable and articulated with sfumato begin to possess terribilita as he moves towards the later period, the tension and fear overwhelm in the pictorial space. His works executed in the last decade of his life, such as Flaying of Marsyas and Pieta, explicitly demonstrate the radical change in the artistic style. Despite the tragic subject, Titian narrates the scene without any pity. His brushstroke handling different textures are somewhat minimized, rather showing rough and hazy painterliness, and the conventional palette suggests the radical changed in its tonality, which is no longer vivid or individualized; these intense styles almost foreshadow the later style of Rubens and Rembrandt. The Pieta also conveys the same dramatic tension, not as much as overwhelming like the former work but represent the subdued grief and agony. Against the background architecture, marble nave with pediment, and two statues looking out of the pictorial space, four figures are arranged in almost like statues sculpted for a pediment. Moses and figures form a bold diagonal, balanced with a putto holding torchlight on the other side, yet conventional composition of Titian. Among the figures in a grief over the death of Christ, only Magdalena is stand out as a true protagonist whereas others are static and silent in subdued grief; she evokes the vivid drama into the painting with her explicit expression about to cry out and theatrical pose. However, the most striking changes in the latest Titian’s are the tonality and brushstrokes, which are totally different from the old-age style of Michelangelo in terms of its artistic style and later appear in the latest style of Rembrandt. Perhaps it is due to the old-age that caused the bold and hazy brush strokes and change in his palette. Nevertheless, Titian was able to sublime his physical defect into the artistic style that is more grandeur, and filled with dramatic tension. If Pliny’s ideal is the art in flux, these latest and unfinished works of old-aged masters should be praised more than the previous works in their oeuvre although the mature works reached the artistic pinnacle of the style of the time and the latest works with innovation suggested the foreshadowing of the later style. The artist’s work is a response to the style of the current and the great artists who we remember as old masters and whose styles never remained static. Their works suggest innovation, and the styles were in flux; they learned, influenced, and built their own styles. Especially Michelangelo and Titian had a long artistic career that enabled them to reach the pinnacle and experience limit of the high Renaissance style. We see the grace and virtue of the old-aged master, who lacks the strength to leave the refined brush strokes or represent the subtle tonality, but whose work is free from all the obligations of the long-time practiced convention.

Literature Review Importance Of Motivation Commerce Essay

Literature Review Importance Of Motivation Commerce Essay Motivation has so many definitions, and it has been discussed, assimilated and referred to in many aspects, as people have come to understand the importance of Motivation, Motivation itself refers to in one study as the reasons underlying behaviour (Guay et al., 2010, p. 712). This is a major phrase as it refers to a simple but major fact. That behaviour is promoted and supported by motivation. This means that what we do and how we do it is based on motivation. In the same context Gredler, Broussard and Garrison (2004) generally defines the motivation concept as attributes that propels us to do or even not to do something (p. 106) This means in the right hands and in the right management motivation can ensure that people behave and act the way factors dictate them to behave. A powerful tool that is worth all the man hours spent in researching this element. In the past few decades Human motivation has become a diversified and extremely researched field with good reasons as it plays a major role in todays organisational front. Motivation has comprehensive roots in a varied collection of educational disciplines that has come to play a big part in todays culture some of which is psychology, sociology, education, political science, and economics. In simplified terms, motivation can be defined as, what makes someone do what they are doing (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. 146). The part motivation plays in all these fields has come to be so immense that everyone today respects and tries to understand the depth of motivation. The general view as to the definition of motivation which shows us in a broad way that: (1) motivation is an a goal directed process (Lawler, 1994), (2) motivation outlines the attainment and search of goals (Denhardt et al., 2008) and (3) motivation is environmentally dependent (Pettinger, 1996). Campbell and Pritchard (1976)has explained motivation as being the set of psychological processes that cause the initiation, direction, strength, and persistence of behavior. All these factors have a direct impact on productivity and the positive human influence in the environment. Motivation has been identified as an internal drive towards ones self and not to other people, its is an internal occurrence within ones heart and mind. Sometimes managers have the influencing power to motivate the process, but the said managers cannot control it or wield it (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. 147).Which makes it harder to wield, however if management can make the conditions such it can promote motivation. Its has become important to know and understand as much as possible when it comes to motivation so that management can do everything that is possible to make the environment a motivation zone Also Young (2000, p1) in his studies makes a valued and simple statement, what motivation is depends on who you ask he states. He further suggests that motivation has the depth to be conveyed in many ways and means, and it depends of a persons view point .If you ask a general bystanader the response would be in the lines of,its what drives a person to do what they do or its the force that make us make the small decisions that change the things we do. Hence motivation is the energy within an person that accounts for the level, course, and tenacity of effort spent at work. Again before management decisions that may or may not involve cost is taken it is important that an assessment on which relevant motivators for the relevant situation is assessed and assimilated prior. Again a statement and study that will help managers get the best out of the people states that according to a study by Antomioni (1999, p29), the quantity of energy individuals are ready to put in their work is dependent on the degree to which they feel their motivational needs will be fulfilled. From another view point, people become de-motivated if they feel something in the company or workplace plays a role in preventing them from achieving positive and lucrative outcomes. In another study by Bartol and Martin (1998) they go on to define motivation as a control that reinforces and fortifies behaviour, again stating the fact that motivation drives behaviour, as such drives performance or in most instances the lack of it. Also it is said that the process of motivation is an evolution of moving and supporting goal-directed behavior (Chowdhury.M.S, 2007). It is an internal strength that drives individuals to pull off personal and organizational goals (Reena et al, 2009). Motivation is such a factor that exerts a driving force on our actions and work. According to Baron (1983, p. 123), The main Motivational theories can be divided to two content theories, centred around the hypothesis that all persons share a almost identical set of human needs, and as a whole we are all motivated to satisfy and achieve those needs (Maslow, 1946; McGregor, 1957; Herzberg, 1968; Alderfer, 1969; McClelland, 1988) however other theories have clarified that while the majority of the human beings might have very related needs the standing and the engagement of those needs are different to each other and motivation needs to be adjust accordingly (  Skinner, 1935; Festinger, 1957; Adams, 1963; Vroom, 1967; Porter Lawler, 1968; Kahler, 1975; Locke et al., 1990)this study will look in to most motivation theories that are applicable in this context and review them accordingly. Employee motivation Motivation and Employees go hand in hand in todays context. And there are theories born every day on motivation, how to motivate etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Most concepts are centred around the hypothesis that persons all share a similar set of human needs and as humans we will always tend to satisfy those needs any way we know how, and at all times. The afore mentioned needs as per the fundamental motivational gurus (e.g., Maslow, 1946; McGregor, 1957; Herzberg, 1968; Alderfer, 1969; McClelland, 1988) Which has started an immediate creation of new theories both proving and disproving these fundamentals. Most theories are centred around the coherent reasoning process and explain that while most human beings share similar needs, the value that is placed in the lives of people for those needs and how those needs are placed is different for everyone, which is a very genaralized way of reasoning; this though process leads in the direction that motivation within individuals is something that is hi ghly subjective in nature(e.g., Skinner, 1935; Festinger, 1957; Adams, 1963; Vroom, 1967; Porter Lawler, 1968; Kahler, 1975; Locke et al., 1990). In a early study in this regards Bassett-Jones Lloyd (2005, p931) has presented the community with two views of human nature and a look towards early research into employee motivation. The primary view emphases on Taylorism, which regarded individuals as fundamentally idle lazy and and work -shy, which has been disproved in the later years from motivators and hygiene factors theories that were formulated. This thought process explained that the said individuals or in the work context employees can only be motivated by external stimuli. The secondary thought process was based on the popular Hawthorn experimental studies, which identified the opinion that workers are motivated to work well for work and nothing else but work, also and not only for the social and financial paybacks, later this motivation was described as internal motivation. It has been said that if you took into account monetary, financial and human capital, the later are more essential and have the capability to ensure an organisation has a competitive edge as compared to the competition (Rizwan et al, 2010). As the human capital is gaining its repute as the most important factor an organisation has in its position, all these studies become paramount in todays context. Employee motivation has become a main item in the to do list for most managers to ensure the increase job satisfaction amongst employees within organizations (Shadare et al, 2009). Motivated employees are said to be responsive of the predefined goals and objectives that he or she must achieve, thus they direct their complete efforts in that direction. Rutherford in 1990 explained that motivation formulates a company more successful because it triggers employees to constantly look and improve practices to do their work, this is vital and extremely important to ensure that the staff are motivated and in a motivated environment (Kalimullah et al, 2010). As motivation and job satisfaction go hand in hand it has been said that, an individulas feeling of being satisfied at work is directly associated with the level of internal motivation of employees that in a chain reaction increases the satisfaction levels of the workers. (Salman et al, 2010) Motivation and performance Motivation and Performance has been linked together for a long time, and managers everywhere are now digging deeper to understand the roots of these theories. As motivation is considered an internal drive, it is important that managers understand what moves their staff to perform. In Beyond the Fringe, Simms is seen to analyse how different companies use tailor made versions of cashless rewards as employee incentives. In todays research it has now been determined that cash is but a quick fix solution to a problem. Simms goes on to say that as Herzbergs described monetary incentives as non-motivators is on the money. Motivation leads to greater employee satisfaction and performance (Simms, 2007).All the more reason why managers should focus on this element in a human resource point of view. When looking at real life examples we consider the study by Whiteling who looks at the cases of Reuters and Salisburys the super store chain to explain the importance it is creating a culture where workers become directly involved in the changes within the organisation.Motivation since it goes hand in hand with empowerment this study becomes a important one. By making a value chain that pays importance to an workers views and used in implementing change, the outlook of the organisation is better understood and accepted and brought in by the employees. This process has positive effects that is it motivates the individuals to support and ensure that the goals and vision of the organisation is met (Whiteling, 2007). Today managers have understood that the silo system of yesterday that had managers in one segment and employees in another made the working environment a de motivated one. A good communication chain and even the grape wine has provided the employee to discuss problems etc, if this fails and communication is halted de-motivation has a way of creeping in. A common thread of communication between employers and employees emerges as a requirement for employee motivation (Simms, 2007; Jakobson, 2007; Whiteling, 2007; Silverman, 2006; Sharbrough, 2006). And studies have shown that motivated staff are more energised and more geared to perform. The majority of studies into this stream show a definite connection with better motivated employees that ture into better performers within the organisation.(Simms, 2007; Jakobson, 2007; Whiteling, 2007; Silverman, 2006; Sharbrough, 2006). In their studies it is suggested that motivation is the process that exerts that a person will be willing to give it their best and their total dedication the ensure that the organisational objectives will be met at every turn. This process can be self driven as well. Robbins and Coulter (2005, 392.) and managers have but one way to ensre that the organisational goals are achieved and that is by ensuring the process of motivation is implemented successfully. Also research dictates that any form of reward will ensure that employees are motivated and thus better perform. (Kalimullah et al, 2010). All organisations use the basic monetary and development pospects and other rewards to motivate employees to work harder and perform better.(Reena et al, 2009). So the age old debate of what motivates employees is being studied and researched to identify what motivates employees. Leadership is the art of getting people to do their allocation of work the way you want them to, as leaders trust among the workers towards you is paramount. And trust comes as well as hard work through motivation and motivated individuals.(Baldoni.J, 2005). Studies show that together both leaders and followers motivate and boost each others moral in successful environments of motivation.(Rukhmani.K, 2010).Motivation is purely and simply a leadership behaviour. It stems from wanting to do what is right for people as well as for the organization. Leadership and motivation are active processes (Baldoni.J, 2005). As per La Motta (1995) it is stated that performance at the work place is directly correlated to motivation and motivation based environment. The above theories all point at the direction that motivation and performance shares strong links, and that if management can identify what motivates their employees, performance can be enhanced, and through which the all-important bottom line can be enriched. Theories of Motivation Motivation due to its importance had spawned many theories and those theories can be broadly categorized as Content theories and Process theories. Content theory Observing the Content theories they rotate in the basic principal that what drives any person to strive to achieve anything or work towards anything is based on the understating people act in a certain manner because all human beings have needs to satisfy, these are the most renowned and spoken of theories in motivation. Nevertheless, there are serious failings in these approaches that can contribute in practice due to the complexity of human nature. Because of this it is imperative that organizational managers know what the workers needs and also have an undersating that employee needs will change and evolve over a time period and also will change from one employee to another. Afterwards the development of a evolving reward system (McShane, Von Glinow 2000, 74.) that will take into account the needs of the employees. In this instance, the ever changing wants of workforces will determine the efficiency of motivations used to motivate them. Needs theory The foundation to motivation and the theory that almost started everything is easily noted kmown and taught in almost every motivational study. This theory was propounded by American psychologist Abraham Maslow; He theorized the famous five stage model of human needs that influence human motivation as this pyramid of Maslow illustrated below: FIGURE1: Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (Griffin2008,438.) The most basic needs are named as Physiological needs such food and shelter that outlines the basis for motivation and are necessary to ensure the continuation of life in its most basic form. The second tier are the needs that are named as Safety needs that are required by persons to feel protected from emotional and physical peril. Companies can establish these needs by providing a secure working environment, by providing job security and added benefits that may include a complete benefit package. The third layer is Belongingness needs are with reference to the need for a connection and group identification persons attain from members of family, friends or colleagues. This includes, to friendship, interactions both social and work environment and belongingness, or acceptance by ones peers. The fourth is the Esteem needs can be described as feeling good about the individual. Self- esteem and personal accomplishment through challenging assignments are part of internal esteem needs whi le nice job titles, recognition, rewards and reputation are external esteem needs. And lastly Maslow speaks of the highest level of the evolution of needs which are Self-actualization is the higest tier of achievement in the Maslows need hierarchy. It suggests that the maximum potential of an individual has been reached. This is a complex need, however, is almost impossible for managers to address as it is completely up to the employees desire to achieve. Griffin (2008, 439.) this suggests that leaders can help foster an environment where attaining self-actualization is possible for instance empower employees to make decisions about work and providing opportunities for self-development. As perceived by Maslow, Maslow resolved that persons are mainly motivated by needs that are unfulfilled in an rising scale. This concept is termed satisfaction-progression process or pre potency whereby individuals will proceed to fulfil a next higher level need only after a lower level need of the hierarchy is fully satisfied. In other words, an individual whose physiological needs are unmet will not escalate to fulfil the next layer i.e. safety needs; instead will motivate oneself to persevere until the currently recognized need is satisfied. (McShane et al. 2000, 67.) What is important when looking at Maslows theory is to note that Maslow informs that you have to satisfy a step by step needs hierarchy. However many state this is not the case. ERG Theory Taking the needs theory into consideration Alderfer reviewed the theory of hierarchical needs by reclassifying the pyramid into three level categories of human needs: The Existence needs combines the first two of Maslows basic needs that are physiological and safety needs. It refers to the essential needs for survival such as the basic food and air and safety, and in a working context safe working environment as well. Relatedness needs is similar to the Maslow aspect of social needs; a need for persons to withstand interpersonal relationships and to feel a string connection to others. The widely spoken Extrinsic motivation falls within this areas as well. The growth needs covers esteem needs and self-actualization of the needs theory. This is a need consisting of the improvement of ones self; develop intrinsic motivation for task through accomplishments; complete meaningful task and be creative. Almost disproving Maslow, Alderfer sates that persons may be motivated by more than one category of needs at the same time where one need appears more central than the other need. This is known to be the frustration-regression process whereby if an individual who is unable to satisfy the growth need will regress to relatedness need which continues to be a strong motivator. (McShane et al. 2000, 68.) Opposing to the theory that states that persons have identical innate needs, David McClelland (1988) contends that some needs differ from person to person and that they are often needs that are learned over time; with some people having higher levels of one need than others. McClelland proposes that individuals are motivated based on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. Each person has a certain level of each need and in combination they describe what types of motivation influences would suite them best. Two factor theory Another important theory that will assist this study greatly is Herzbergs theory of motivation affects directly to organisational culture and practices, This theory was formed from an practical research that was conducted on workers to understand and comprehend the amount of job satisfaction. Herzberg stated that factors resulting in satisfaction are shown and understood as motivators, and on the other hand hygiene factors leads to a certain amount of dissatisfaction. He noted that Persons will do their best to fulfil the hygiene factors just to ensure that they are not dissatisfied. However they do not essentially persuade long-term satisfaction. However low or inadequate or the absence of good hygiene factors will cause dissatisfaction in almost all cases. However, dissatisfaction will not result from unsatisfied intrinsic needs nor reduce dissatisfaction when these needs are met. (Herzberg, Mausner, Snyderman 1959, 113-114.) Motivation factors are related to work content while hygiene factors are related to work environment (Griffin 2008, 440.) as summarized below: Motivation factors (Intrinsic) Hygiene factors (Extrinsic) Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work itself Advancement Personal growth Company policies and administration Interpersonal relations Working conditions Salary Job security Status Benefits According to Herzberg et al. (1959, 131-132.), Managers should not relay solely on giving the employees that hygiene factors as this will only motivate them so far, and employees depending too much on extrinsic rewards will only motivate employees for a short time at best. And this will also result in the organisations growth minimisation and profit loss in the long run. The winning solution is for managers to focus on developping more intrinsically challenging tasks and programs, provide recognition and empowerment to employees when motivated behaviour is demonstarted, which are the true motivators, when fulfilled, contribute to long-term positive effect on employees job performance. Process theories The process theories are all about how a person is motivated, this theory revolves around the component of the need, and how that pushes someone to to behave in the way that they do. The secondary and more strong component is people striving towards performance through rewards. Taking an example into consideration individual will see a reward and will display a different set of behaviours. Like working hard and going the extra mile.so this reward turns into a motive for that behaviour. So the employee focus turns towards the reward which is a hygiene motivator. Expectancy theory Victor Vrooms expectancy theory proposes that individual motivation levels depend on factors and he states three predominant factors that are mentioned below, Expectancy (EP) is the theory that informs putting amounts of pressure will ensure that the individual will perform to the best of his or her ability. For this to be a success the individual must have the skills and also the educational background and also the necessary work experience. Instrumentality (PO) this shows that the individuals hard work that leads to performance will lead to a positive outcome. Simply for this to work the individual must understand and belive that his work will be repayed by increase in his wages or promotions etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦And the said rewards can vary from intrinsic to extrinsic. Vroom deducted that by using a formula that is seen below an individuals motivation levels can be understood and calculated: Motivation = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence This theory believes that motivation exists only when workers see a positive a relationship between the effort that is spent to work and the performance and the awarded reward. (Griffin 2008, 444.) In a nutshell, if the power of any of there factors are zero or insignificant, there will be little or no motivation. If an employee who has the ability to perform well does not expect a reward or does not find the reward attractive, then he/she will not be so motivated to do the job. For motivation levels to be high, all three factors must be high too. It is clear, from the expectancy theory, that incentives play a crucial role in motivating employees. Goal theory In 1968, Edwin Lock concluded that by having a goal present for an individual can be in some instances a motivational factor,(Wofford et al., 1992) and verified Atkinsons (1958) idea that performance and task difficulty were related in a curvilinear, inverse function (Locke Latham, 2002). Locks idea, a seemingly natural outgrowth of Aristotles telos (Barker, 1958), have been supported in a number of studies (Latham Baldes, 1975; RothkopfBillington, 1979; Locke et al., 1990). The main element for this theory was that setting a goal that is not un attainable and specific it can to a certain extent drive and individual to performance, thus creating a motivation factor. Also a goal is a great indicator for an individual to determine the level of achievement as well. Another factor that is a good contributor for the advantages of goal setting is that it gives a sense of team sprit as well as achievement as a team. Specific and measurable performance goals in teams can solidify cohesion, increase performance, and reaffirm purpose (Katzenbach Smith, 2003). Equity theory Social equity theory was introduced by John S. Adams (1963) a simple but brilliant theory that states that most people are happy in relationships in any form only if they get what they give, another way is give and take in equal amounts. (Mowday, 1991),this can mean that a person judges equity by measuring their input to outcome ratio against that of other workers. Adams suggested that we gain our sense of equity through the process of socialization. Therefore according to this theory, someones perception of inequity creates strain which is proportionate to the inequity, and this tension is what serves to motivate individuals to change. Adams outlines six methods to reduce the tension of inequity: (1) altering effort, (2) altering outcomes, (3) changing how people think about effort or outcomes, (4) leave the field (p. 428), (5) try to change the outcomes for others, and (6) change the comparison standards. However, Adams cautions that, Not all means of reducing inequities that have been listed will be equally satisfactory, and the adoption of some may result in very unsteady states (p. 429). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation What motivates people, Money or something else, this question has been asked by many for the better part of this century. It was identified that there are two main types of motivation, these are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. By looking deeper into the multiple theories of motivation, one will find that there are two basic types of motivation: this suggests that and individual can be motivated both internally and externally. Intrinsically motivated individuals show symptoms that they work for nothing else but work itself. (Deci, 1975). Malone and Lepper (1987) have defined it as what people will do without external inducement. Examples for this type of motivation can be taken as serving the country and also the need to be loved. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand is the external factors that make people do something and can be easily identified in many instances (Deci, 1975). Examples of extrinsic motivation are cash, guidelines and laws, and the physical e nvironment. Deci and Ryan (1985) explain that if an individual is intrinsically motivated they can show sighs of creativity and flexibility. And on the flip side extrinsically motivated individuals are more rigid and their behaviour usually is a result of pressure, and low sllf esteem (Scott, 1975; Guzzo, 1979). However both motivator elements are extremely important for managers and can assist in the success of any organisation. From the research into the benefits and other aspects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have upon each other, when taking the educational areas in to consideration. It has been found that many students do not find studying to be intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi Larson, 1984) and that extrinsic motivation has the exact opposite effect on student achievement than is desired (Lepper Hodell, 1989). In fact, Cameron and Pierce (1994) in their studies have indetified that when an indivudal is praised when they achieve something the motivation in the form of intrinsic goes up And more drastically extrincis motivators not only not motivate people after sometime but can also harm the motivation porcess in the long run. However, Cameron and Pierce also found that reinforcement, unlike reward, does not harm intrinsic motivation (Cameron Pierce, 1994). Factors of motivation There are many factors that motivate individuals, and as the study shows there is no one rule of thumb to motivate someone but a well observed and specific process that is motivation. When looking at research on motivator we see from a sample study with regards to a labour force taking into account seven different countries that was conducted by Harpaz (1991 p.75displays results stating that the best working environments and personal objectives are better pay and the work that one does to be of an interesting nature and this study is a comprehensive one that took into consideration gender and levels across the organisation in review. Quinn (1997) also cited in Harpaz (1991 p.311) concluded, When the ratings of twenty three job related factors (including the need factors) were carried out, the conclusion reached was that no single factor was pre-eminently important. He further pointed out that, The most aspect of the worker job was that of sufficient resources to perform a task. Regardless of the automation of an organisation productivity is a factor that will only be dependant of the motivation levels of its staff. And training and development plays an important part of the strategy to give the staff that motivation that is a major need. One way managers can instigate motivation is to give appropriate information on the sentences of their actions on others (Adeyinka et al, 2007). Cash rewards is considered a incentive; no other incentive or motivational technique comes even close to it with respect to its influential value (Sara et al, 2004). Empowerment Empowerment is and has become as strong a buzz word as motivation. This tool is a carefully planned and processed one that promotes motivation to great lengths. Staffs perform to their best with the sense of belonging, eagerness, and happiness, in empowered organizations. Adding up, they work with a sense of responsibility and prefer benefits of the organization to theirs (Yazdani,B.O. et al, 2011) If the vision of an organisation is success, the trust factor in imperative, and this trust should be kept alive and well to ensure that the organisation is home to a set of motivated individuals, and the trust factor will be a strong motivation tool of enchasing the levels of any organisation (Annamalai.T, 2010). It can make intrapersonal and interpersonal effects and influence on the relations inside and out the organization (Hassan et al, 2010). Empowerment will always be a defining factor in the process to motivation. Empowering makes employees feel that they are appreciated and for making it possible continuous and positive feedback on their performance is essential (Smith, B, 1997) Another positive consequence of empowerment is that will lead any organisation to grow and expand to the maximum. (Smith, B, 1997). Empowerment guides quicker decision of customer issues as employees do not waste time looking for approvals and asking questions but offers solutions. (Mani, V, 2010) Bhatti and Qureshi (2007) informs that employees taking part of the decision making process only makes the organisation stronger (Reena et al, 2009). Sanderson (2003) explains that empowerment is the sole creator of motivation and also is responsible in the creation of positive energy within the organisation (Amin. et al, 2010). Employee participation and empowerment not only direct to efficiency, effectiveness and innovation but they also boost employee gratification, work motivation and trust in the organization (Constant.D, 2001). Recognition Another way of motivating individuals that has an age old history is recognising people for their achievements no matter how big or small they are. In